Process Model and Site Isolation

As the early Web matured, web sites evolved from simple documents to active programs, changing the web browser's role from a simple document renderer to an operating system for programs. Modern browsers like Chromium use multiple operating system processes to manage this workload, improving stability, security, and performance.

Chromium‘s process model determines how documents, workers, and other web content are divided into processes. First, the process model must identify which parts of a “program” on the web need to coexist in a single process. Somewhat surprisingly, a program on the web is not a single document plus its subresources, but rather a group of same (or similar) origin documents that can fully access each other’s contents. Once these atomic groups are defined, the process model can then decide which groups will share a process. These decisions can be tuned based on platform, available resources, etc, to achieve the right level of isolation for different scenarios.

This document outlines the goals and design of Chromium's process model and the various ways it is used today, including its support for Site Isolation.

Goals

At a high level, Chromium aims to use separate processes for different instances of web sites when possible. A web site instance is a group of documents or workers that must share a process with each other to support their needs, such as cross-document scripting. (This roughly corresponds to an “agent cluster” from the HTML Standard, as described below.)

For stability, putting web site instances in separate processes limits the impact of a renderer process crash or hang, allowing other content to continue working. For performance, this allows different web site instances to run in parallel with better responsiveness, at the cost of some memory overhead for each process.

For security, strictly using separate processes for different web sites allows significantly stronger defenses against malicious web sites. In addition to running web content within a low-privilege sandbox that limits an attacker‘s access to the user’s machine, Chromium's multi-process architecture can support Site Isolation, where each renderer process is only allowed to access data from a single site. Site Isolation involves:

Locked Renderer Processes: A renderer process can be limited to documents and workers from a single web site or origin, even if such documents are in iframes.
Browser-Enforced Restrictions: The privileged browser process can monitor IPC messages from renderer processes to limit their actions or access to site data (e.g., using ChildProcessSecurityPolicy::CanAccessDataForOrigin). This prevents compromised renderer processes from asking for cross-site data, using permissions granted to other sites, etc. These restrictions take two main forms:
- “Jail” checks: Ensure that a process locked to a particular site can only access data belonging to that site. If all processes are locked, this is sufficient protection.
- “Citadel” checks: Ensure that unlocked processes cannot access data for sites that require a dedicated process. This adds protection in cases where full Site Isolation is not available, such as Android.
Network Response Limitations: Chromium can ensure that locked renderer processes are only allowed to receive sensitive data (e.g., HTML, XML, JSON) from their designated site or origin, while still allowing cross-origin subresource requests (e.g., images, media) as needed for compatibility. This is achieved using Cross-Origin Read Blocking (CORB) or Opaque Response Blocking (ORB).

Abstractions and Implementations

Chromium uses several abstractions to track which documents and workers need synchronous access to each other, as a constraint for process model decisions.

Security Principal (implemented by SiteInfo): In security terminology, a principal is an entity with certain privileges. Chromium associates a security principal with execution contexts (e.g., documents, workers) to track which data their process is allowed to access. This principal is typically a “site” (i.e., scheme plus eTLD+1, such as https://example.com), because web pages can modify their document.domain value to access other same-site documents, and not just same-origin documents. In some cases, though, the principal may be an origin or have a coarser granularity (e.g., file:). The SiteInfo class tracks all values that identify a security principal.
Principal Instance (implemented by SiteInstance): A principal instance is the core unit of Chromium‘s process model. Any two documents with the same principal in the same browsing context group (see below) must live in the same process, because they have synchronous access to each other’s content. This access includes cross-document scripting and synchronous communication through shared memory (e.g., SharedArrayBuffer). If such documents were in different processes, data races or deadlocks would occur if they concurrently accessed objects in their shared DOM or JavaScript heaps.
This roughly corresponds to the agent cluster concept in the spec, although they do not match exactly: multiple agent clusters may sometimes share a principal instance (e.g., with data: URLs in the same principal instance as their creator), and principals may keep track of more factors than agent cluster keys (e.g., whether the StoragePartition differs).
Note that the user may visit multiple instances of a given principal in the browser, sometimes in unrelated tabs (i.e., separate browsing context groups). These separate instances do not need synchronous access to each other and can safely run in separate processes.
Browsing Context Group (implemented by BrowsingInstance): A browsing context group is a group of tabs and frames (i.e., containers of documents) that have references to each other (e.g., frames within the same page, popups with window.opener references, etc). Any two documents within a browsing context group may find each other by name, so it is important that any same-principal documents in the group live in the same process. In other words, there is only one principal instance per principal in a given browsing context group. Note that a tab may change its browsing context group on some types of navigations (e.g., due to a Cross-Origin-Opener-Policy header, browser-initiated cross-site navigations, and other reasons).

From an implementation perspective, Chromium keeps track of the SiteInstance of each RenderFrameHost, to determine which renderer process to use for the RenderFrameHost's documents. SiteInstances are also tracked for workers, such as ServiceWorker or SharedWorkerHost.

Modes and Availability

Full Site Isolation (site-per-process)

Used on: Desktop platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, ChromeOS).

In (one-)site-per-process mode, each process is locked to documents from a single site. Sites are defined as scheme plus eTLD+1, since different origins within a given site may have synchronous access to each other if they each modify their document.domain. This mode provides all sites protection against compromised renderers and Spectre-like attacks, without breaking backwards compatibility.

This mode can be enabled on Android using chrome://flags/#enable-site-per-process.

Partial Site Isolation

Used on: Chrome for Android (2+ GB RAM).

On platforms like Android with more significant resource constraints, Chromium only uses dedicated (locked) processes for some sites, putting the rest in unlocked processes that can be used for any web site. (Note that there is a threshold of about 2 GB of device RAM required to support any level of Site Isolation on Android.)

Locked processes are only allowed to access data from their own site. Unlocked processes can generally access data from any site that does not require a locked process. Chromium usually creates one unlocked process per browsing context group.

Currently, several heuristics are used to isolate the sites that are most likely to have user-specific information. As on all platforms, privileged pages like WebUI are always isolated. Chromium also isolates sites that users tend to log into in general, as well as sites on which a given user has entered a password, logged in via an OAuth provider, or encountered a Cross-Origin-Opener-Policy (COOP) header.

No Site Isolation

Used on: Low-memory Chrome for Android (<2 GB RAM), Android WebView, Chrome for iOS.

On some platforms, Site Isolation is not available, due to implementation or resource constraints.

On Android devices with less than 2 GB of RAM, Site Isolation is disabled to avoid requiring multiple renderer processes in a given tab (for out-of-process iframes). Cross-process navigations in the main frame are still possible (e.g., for browser-initiated cross-site navigations with no other pages in the browsing context group, when a new browsing context group may be created).
Android WebView does not yet support multiple renderer processes or out-of-process iframes.
Chrome for iOS uses WebKit, which does not currently have support for out-of-process iframes or Site Isolation.

Origin Isolation

Available on: Desktop platforms, Chrome for Android (2+ GB RAM).

There are several optional ways to lock processes at an origin granularity rather than a site granularity, with various tradeoffs for compatibility (e.g., breaking pages that modify document.domain). These are available on platforms that support some level of Site Isolation.

Built-in: //content embedders can designate particular origins that require isolation from the rest of their site, using ContentBrowserClient::GetOriginsRequiringDedicatedProcess.
Configurable: Users and administrators can list particular origins that should be isolated from the rest of their site, using the command line (--isolate-origins=...), chrome://flags#isolate-origins, or enterprise policy (IsolateOrigins or IsolateOriginsAndroid). It is also possible to isolate all origins (except those that opt-out) using chrome://flags/#origin-keyed-processes-by-default.
Opt-in: The Origin-Agent-Cluster HTTP response header can be used by web developers to hint to the browser that an origin locked process can be used. This is not a security guarantee and may not always be honored (e.g., to keep all same-origin documents consistent within a given browsing context group), though it allows finer grained isolation in the common case. Note that Origin-Agent-Cluster is now enabled by default, effectively disabling changes to document.domain unless an OAC opt-out header is used.

CrossOriginIsolated

Certain powerful web platform features now require an opt-in CrossOriginIsolated mode, which ensures that all cross-origin content (e.g., documents and workers, as well as subresources like media or scripts) consents to being loaded in the same process as an origin using these features. This opt-in is required because these powerful features (e.g., SharedArrayBuffers) can be used for very precise timing, which can make attacks that leak data from the process (e.g., using Spectre or other transient execution attacks) more effective. This mode is important because not all browsers support out-of-process iframes for cross-origin documents, and not all cross-origin subresources can be put in a separate process.

CrossOriginIsolated mode requires the main document to have Cross-Origin-Opener-Policy and Cross-Origin-Embedder-Policy headers. These headers impose restrictions on all content that may load within the page or process (e.g., requiring similar headers on subframes, and CORS, CORP, or a credentialless mode for subresources).

Historical Modes

Before Site Isolation was introduced, Chromium initially supported a few other process models that affected the number of renderer processes.

Process-per-site-instance: This model was the default when Chromium first launched. It used a new process when navigating to a different site in some scenarios (e.g., via the address bar but not link clicks), as well as when visiting different instances of the same site in different tabs. At the time, cross-site subframes stayed in the same process as their parent frames.
Process-per-site: This model consolidated all instances of a given site into a single process (per profile), to reduce the process count. It generally led to poor usability when a single process was used for too many tabs. This mode is still used for certain limited cases (e.g., the New Tab Page) to reduce the process count and process creation latency. It is also used for extensions to allow synchronous scripting from a background page. Note that having a single process for a site might not be guaranteed (e.g., due to multiple profiles, or races).
Process-per-tab: This model used a separate process for each browsing context group (i.e., possibly multiple related tabs), but did not attempt to switch processes on cross-site navigations. In practice, though, this model still needed to swap processes for privileged pages like chrome:// URLs.
Single process: Chromium also allows a single process model which runs all of the browser and renderer code in a single OS process. This is generally not a safe or robust process model, since it prevents the use of the sandbox and cannot survive any crash in renderer process code. It is mainly used for older low-resource Android WebView scenarios, and for debugging or testing.

Visualizations

Chromium provides several ways to view the current state of the process model:

Chromium's Task Manager: This can be found under “More Tools” in the menu, and shows live resource usage for each of Chromium's processes. The Task Manager also shows which documents and workers are grouped together in a given process: only the first row of a given group displays process ID and most statistics, and all rows of a group are highlighted when one is clicked. Note that double clicking any row attempts to switch to the tab it is associated with. In the default sort order (i.e., when clicking the Task column header until the up/down triangle disappears), processes for subframes are listed under the process for their tab when possible, although this may not be possible if subframes from multiple tabs are in a given process.
chrome://process-internals/#web-contents: This is an internal diagnostic page which shows information about the SiteInstances and processes for each open document.
chrome://discards/graph: This is an internal diagnostic page that includes a visualization of how the open documents and workers map to processes. Clicking on any node provides more details.

Process Reuse

For performance, Chromium attempts to strike a balance between using more processes to improve parallelism and using fewer processes to conserve memory. There are some cases where a new process is always required (e.g., for a cross-site page when Site Isolation is enabled), and other cases where heuristics can determine whether to create a new process or reuse an old one. Generally, process reuse can only happen in suitable cases, such as within a given profile or respecting a process lock. Several factors go into this decision.

Suitability: Several properties are global to a given renderer process: profile (including Incognito), StoragePartition (which may differ between tabs and Chrome Apps), and crossOriginIsolated status. For example, two documents from different profiles or StoragePartitions can never share the same renderer process. The ProcessLock (described below) also restricts which documents are allowed in a process.
Soft Process Limit: On desktop platforms, Chromium sets a “soft” process limit based on the memory available on a given client. While this can be exceeded (e.g., if Site Isolation is enabled and the user has more open sites than the limit), Chromium makes an attempt to start randomly reusing same-site processes when over this limit. For example, if the limit is 100 processes and the user has 50 open tabs to example.com and 50 open tabs to example.org, then a new example.com tab will share a process with a random existing example.com tab, while a chromium.org tab will create a 101st process. Note that Chromium on Android does not set this soft process limit, and instead relies on the OS to discard processes.
Aggressive Reuse: For some cases (including on Android), Chromium will aggressively look for existing same-site processes to reuse even before reaching the process limit. Out-of-process iframes (OOPIFs) and fenced frames use this approach, such that an example.com iframe in a cross-site page will be placed in an existing example.com process (in any browsing context group), even if the process limit has not been reached. This keeps the process count lower, based on the assumption that most iframes/fenced frames are less resource demanding than top-level documents. Similarly, ServiceWorkers are generally placed in the same process as a document that is likely to rely on them.
Extensions: Chromium ensures that extensions do not share a process with each other or with web pages, but also that a large number of extensions will not consume the entire soft process limit, forcing same-site web pages into too few processes. Chromium only allows extensions to consume one third of the process limit before disregarding further extension processes from the process limit computation.
Process-per-site: As noted above, pages like the New Tab Page (NTP) and extensions use a model where all instances of the page are placed in the same process.

Process Locks

Chromium assigns a ProcessLock to some or all RenderProcessHosts, to restrict which sites are allowed to load in the process and which data the process has access to. A RenderProcessHost is an object in the browser process that represents a given renderer process, though it can be reused if that renderer process crashes and is restarted. Some ProcessLock cases are used on all platforms (e.g., chrome:// URLs are never allowed to share a process with other sites), while other cases may depend on the mode (e.g., Full Site Isolation requires all processes to be locked, once content has been loaded in the process).

ProcessLocks may have varying granularity, such as a single site (e.g., https://example.com), a single origin (e.g., https://accounts.example.com), an entire scheme (e.g., file://), or a special “allow-any-site” value for processes allowed to host multiple sites (which may have other restrictions, such as whether they are crossOriginIsolated). RenderProcessHosts begin with an “invalid” or unlocked ProcessLock before one is assigned.

ProcessLocks are always assigned before any content is loaded in a renderer process, either at the start of a navigation or at OnResponseStarted time, just before a navigation commits. Note that a process may initially receive an “allow-any-site” lock for some empty document schemes (e.g., about:blank), which may later be refined to a site-specific lock when the first actual content commits. Once a site-specific lock is assigned, it remains constant for the lifetime of the RenderProcessHost, even if the renderer process itself exits and is recreated.

Note that content may be allowed in a locked process based on its origin (e.g., an about:blank page with an inherited https://example.com origin is allowed in a process locked to https://example.com). Also, some opaque origin cases are allowed into a locked process as well, such as data: URLs created within that process.

Special Cases

There are many special cases to consider in Chromium's process model, which may affect invariants or how features are designed.

WebUI: Pages like chrome://settings are considered part of Chromium and are highly privileged, usually hosted in the chrome:// scheme. They are strictly isolated from non-WebUI pages as well as other types of WebUI pages (based on “site”), on all platforms. They are also generally not allowed to load content from the network (apart from a shrinking list of allowlisted pages), unless it is from a separate unprivileged chrome-untrusted:// document. Additionally, normal web pages are not allowed to navigate to WebUI pages, which makes privilege escalation attacks more difficult.
New Tab Page: On desktop platforms, the default “local” NTP is a WebUI page using process-per-site mode, which loads content from the network via chrome-untrusted:// iframes. Third party NTPs are also possible, which load a “remote” non-WebUI web page with limited privileges. On Android, the NTP is instead a native Android surface with no privileged renderer process. Chrome on Android creates an unused renderer process in the background while the NTP surface is visible, so that the next page can use it.
Extensions: On desktop platforms, extension documents and workers are semi-privileged and run in dedicated renderer processes. In contrast, extension content scripts run within the same unprivileged web renderer process as the pages they modify, and thus Chrome Extensions need to treat content scripts as less trustworthy. The browser process makes an effort to enforce that renderer processes have access to any extension APIs or capabilities that they attempt to use.
Hosted Apps: A hosted app is a deprecated type of extension which allows a normal web site to have a special type of renderer process. For example, a hosted app for https://example.com/app/ will have an “effective URL” that looks like a chrome-extension:// URL, causing it to be treated differently in the process model. This support may eventually be removed.
Chrome Web Store: The Chrome Web Store is a rare example of a privileged web origin, to which Chrome grants special APIs for installing extensions.
Isolated Web Apps: Isolated Web Apps (IWAs) are a type of web app that has stricter security and isolation requirements compared to normal web apps. The StoragePartition used for each IWA will be separate from the default StoragePartition used for common browsing and separate from other IWAs. IWAs require strict CSP, CrossOriginIsolated, along with other isolation criteria. These contexts are claimed to be “IsolatedContext” and “IsolatedApplication”.
GuestView: The Chrome Apps <webview> tag and similar cases like MimeHandlerView and ExtensionOptionsGuest embed one WebContents within another. All of these cases use strict site isolation for content they embed. Note that Chrome Apps allow <webview> tags to load normal web pages and the app‘s own data: or chrome-extension:// URLs, but not URLs from other extensions or apps. The IWA <controlledframe> tag is built on top of the <webview> tag’s implementation and exposed to contexts that meet the proper security and isolation requirements, such as IWAs that provide IsolatedContexts. See the Isolated Contexts spec for more info.
Sandboxed iframes: Documents with the sandbox attribute and without allow-same-origin (either iframes or popups) may be same-site with their parent or opener but use an opaque origin. Since 127.0.6483.0, Desktop Chromium moves these documents into a separate process from their parent or opener. On Android, these documents will only be in a separate process if their parent/opener uses Partial Site Isolation. Sandboxed frames embedded in extension pages are in a separate process if they are listed in the “sandbox” section of the extension's manifest, otherwise they are in the same process as the parent.
data: URLs: Chromium generally keeps documents with data: URLs in the same process as the site that created them, since that site has control over their content. The exception is when restoring a previous session, in which case each document with a data: URL ends up in its own process.
File URLs: Chromium currently treats all file:// URLs as part of the same site. Normal web pages are not allowed to load file:// URLs, and renderer processes are only granted access to particular file:// URLs via file chooser dialogs (e.g., for uploads). These URLs may be further isolated from each other in bug 780770.
Error Pages: Chromium uses a special type of process for error pages provided by the browser (as opposed to error pages provided by a web site, like a 404 page), using process-per-site mode to keep all such pages in the same process. Currently this only applies to error pages in a main frame.
Spare Process: Chromium often creates a spare RenderProcessHost with a live but unlocked renderer process, which is used the next time a renderer process is needed. This avoids the need to wait for a new process to start.
Android WebView: While Android WebView uses much of the same code as Chromium, it currently only supports a single renderer process in most cases.